Publication List - International Harm Reduction Association

	by category Alcohol Harm Reduction HIV Prevention and Care for IDUs Overdose Policing Harm Reduction (Illicit Drugs) Tobacco Harm Reduction
	by sub-category 01. Meaning of harm reduction in the context of HIV prevention for IDU 01. Overviews 01. Overviews 01. Overviews of Alcohol Harm Reduction 01. Overviews of harm reduction 02. Alcohol Consumption - Recorded and Unrecorded 02. Epidemiology of IDU and related HIV infection 02. Nicotine policy 02. Strategies and Policies 02: Guides and Policies 03. HIV/AIDS prevention policy and programming 03. National and International Policies 03. Needle Exchanges 03. Regulation of nicotine replacement therapies 03: Epidemiological Research 04. Assessing local and national need for interventions 04. Crackdowns and Enforcement 04. Local Policies and Strategies 04. The health risks of smokeless tobacco and its role in a harm reduction strategy 04: Risk Factors and Risk Environments 05. Managing Public Space 05. Police Conduct & Human Rights 05. Regulation of cigarettes 05. Resource allocation/requirements 05: Naloxone Research 06. Advocacy 06. IDU risk behaviour 06. Interventions for High-Risk Groups 06. The failure of light cigarettes 06: Naloxone Programmes 07. Cigarette reduction 07. Drinking and Driving 07. Sexual risk behaviour 07: Other Prevention Research and Interventions 08. Changing Drinking Environments 08. Needle and Syringe Programs 08. PREPS and other tobacco use 09. Glassware in Bars 09. Substitution treatments 09. The role of the tobacco industry and funding 10. Antiretroviral (ARV) treatment 10. Communication and perceptions of relative risk 10. Server Training 11. Harm Reduction Treatments 11. Health promotion and drug education 12. Alcohol and HIV 12. Outreach and peer education 13. Marginalised groups 13. The Alcohol Industry: Partnership, Codes and Conduct 14. Non-IDU drug use risk 15. Drug user organisations 16. Advocacy 17. Human Rights 18. UN position statements and papers on HIV and IDU Additional Papers

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Policing Harm Reduction (Illicit Drugs) 03. Needle Exchanges
	American Civil Liberties Union (2001) CT Court is First in Nation to Protect Needle Exchange Program from Police Harassment URL Document This website article documents the positive outcome from a legal test case in Connecticut, USA. In response to the alleged police harassment and arrest of drug users at a needle exchange facility, a federal court ruled that police may not interfere with these public health initiatives. Although effective partnership working is always preferable to conflict and litigation, this case underlines the scientific and judicial support for drug treatment and harm reduction endeavours. Click to view publication
	Beletsky L, Macalino GE & Burris S (2005) Attitudes of police officers towards syringe access, occupational needle sticks, and drug use: A qualitative study of one city police department in the United States. International Journal of Drug Policy, 16(4), 267-274 This study investigates the attitudes of 14 US police officers towards needle exchange programmes. Although the legal barriers to syringe access had been removed, officers were largely unaware of this law change, and their practice (the “law on the streets”) had not adapted accordingly. Worryingly, the participants were also poorly trained on how to avoid needle-stick injuries, and generally had negative attitudes towards drug users (blaming them for “poor life choices”). Link provided courtesy of Elsevier (www.elsevier.com), publishers of the International Journal of Drugs Policy (http://journals.elsevierhealth.com/periodicals/drupol). Click to view publication
	Bluthenthal RN, Kral AH, Lorvick J & Watters JK (1997) Impact of law enforcement on syringe exchange programs: A look at Oakland and San Francisco. Medical Anthropology, 18, 61-83 This study (dating to before needle exchanges were legalised in the USA), compares an underground scheme in West Oakland to a police-tolerated one in Fillmore, San Francisco. Although dated, it is a useful resource to demonstrate how inappropriate police action (actual and threatened) can dramatically reduce service uptake (as it did in West Oakland). The authors concluded that such barriers must be removed “if preventing HIV infections is truly a priority”. Unfortunately, we are unable to provide free access to this resource.
	Bluthenthal RN, Lovrick J, Kral AH, Erringer EA & Kahn JG (1999) Collateral damage in the war on drugs: HIV risk behaviours among injection drug users. International Journal of Drug Policy, 10, 25-38. This paper focuses on the macro drug policy rather than policing per se, but it does provide good scientific evidence for how inappropriate law enforcement policies (such as the criminalisation of syringe possession) can directly hinder harm reduction interventions such as needle exchanges. A third of this large sample were reportedly concerned about being arrested for syringe possession, and this sub-group were likelier to share syringes (one of the main injecting risk behaviours that needle exchanges seek to reduce) than unconcerned drug users. We cannot provide free access to this article at this stage – we hope to correct this soon.
	Centre for Innovative Public Policies (2000) Needle exchange initiatives: Getting out the facts and promoting collaboration between law enforcement and public health. URL Document This is a series of reports and URL documents that aimed at law enforcement and police personnel. Its goals are to enable communication between public health and law enforcement personnel, introduce police officials to the evidence and arguments for needle exchanges, enable debates and find compromises and common strategies to reduce drug-related harms. One of the items in this series is listed separately in this section (McCampbell & Rubin, 2000). Click to view publication
	Davis CS, Burris S, Kraut-Becher J, Lynch KG & Metzger D (2005) Effects of an intensive street-level police intervention on syringe exchange program use in Philadelphia, Pa. American Journal of Public Health, 95(2), 233-236 This report analyses the use of local needle exchange schemes before and after “an intensive long-term street-level police intervention”. The use of the schemes fell across all categories and time periods studied, with significant declines in use among total participants, male participants, and Black participants – providing further evidence on the impact that policing strategies can have on harm reduction (and needle exchange in particular). Unfortunately, we are unable to provide free access to this resource.
	McCampbell SW & Rubin PN (2000) A Needle Exchange Program: What’s In It For Police? URL Document This report, aimed at police officers, tries to describe the science behind needle exchange interventions, highlight the potential benefits for the police (such as reduced needle-stick injury risks), and allay fears that such interventions increase crime, condone drug use and encourage social disorder. The authors advocate for more objective (and less moralistic and passionate) debates on the topic, as the cost of “not giving a darn” is estimated as $3billion a year! Download publication as a PDF
	Rhodes T, Mikhailova L, Sarang A, Lowndes CM, Rylkov A, Khutorskoy M & Renton A (2003) Situational factors influencing drug injecting, risk reduction and syringe exchange in Togliatti City, Russian Federation. A qualitative study of micro risk environment. Social Science & Medicine, 57, 39-54. This study from Russia demonstrates the effect that police actions, or the perceived threats of police action, can negatively impact on injecting drug user behaviour and needle exchanges, and contribute to an overall risk environment. Interviews with 57 drug users demonstrated that they were reluctant to carry needles and syringes or to visit pharmacies through the fear or arrest or police harassment. The authors conclude that “one dimension of successful policing in the age of AIS depends on the exercise of discretion in how the law is enforced such that the health of injecting drug users is not compromised”. Unfortunately, we are unable to provide free access to this article.
	Rhodes T, Platt L, Sarang A, Vlasov A, Mikhailova L & Monaghan G (2006) Street policing, injecting drug use and harm reduction in a Russian city: A qualitative case study of police perspectives. Journal of Urban Health, 83(5), 911-925 This recent study describes the attitudes of 26 Russian police officers towards drug users. Against a backdrop of rising HIV prevalence amongst drug users, the relationship between the police and needle exchanges is described as “uneasy” due to local policing strategies such as drug user surveillance and the criminalisation of syringe possession. Unfortunately, we are unable to provide free access to this resource.
	United Kingdom Harm Reduction Alliance (2003) Protocol for the replacement of injecting equipment in police station custody suites. London: UKHRA This document (based on a template protocol from Kent, England) aims to provide operational guidelines for police and custody personnel for when a detainee arrives in custody with needles or syringes. By encouraging drug users to hand in their injecting paraphernalia, the risks of needle-stick injuries to law enforcement personnel are reduced. By providing sterile replacements to drug users upon their release, they can also benefit from the proven harm reducing approach of sterile needle distribution. Download publication as a PDF

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